An adverb is a part of
speech. It is any word
that modifies verbs or any
part of speech other than
anoun (modifiers of
nouns are primarily
adjectives and
determiners). Adverbs
can modify verbs,
adjectives (including
numbers), clauses,
sentences, and other
adverbs.
Adverbs typically answer
questions such as how?,
in what way?, when?,
where?, and to what
extent?. This function is
called theadverbial
function, and is realized
not just by single words
(i.e., adverbs) but by
adverbial phrases and
adverbial clauses.
Adverbs in English
Adverbs are words like
slowly, tomorrow, now,
soon and suddenly. An
adverb usually modifies a
verb or a verb phrase. It
provides information
about the manner, place
or circumstances of the
activity denoted by the
verb or verb phrase.
She walked slowly.
(Here the adverb
slowly shows the
manner in which she
walked.)
The kids are playing
upstairs. (Here the
adverb upstairs
provides information
about the place of the
activity.)
Adverbs can also modify
adjectives and other
adverbs.
You are quite right.
(Here the adverb quite
modifies the adjective
right.)
She spoke quite
loudly. (Here the
adverb quite modifies
another adverb –
loudly.)
There are very many
kinds of adverbs.
Examples are: adverbs of
manner, adverbs of
frequency, adverbs of
time, adverbs of place,
adverbs of certainty etc.
In English, adverbs of
manner (answering the
question how?) are often
formed by adding -ly to
adjectives. For example,
great yields greatly, and
beautiful yields beautifully.
(Note that some words
that end in -ly, such as
friendly and lovely, are
not adverbs, but
adjectives, in which case
the root word is usually a
noun. There are also
underived adjectives that
end in -ly, such as holy
and silly.)
The suffix -ly is related to
the Germanic word "lich".
(There is also an obsolete
English word lych orlich
with the same meaning.)
Both words are also
related to the word like.
The connection between -
ly and like is easy to
understand. The
connection to lich is
probably that both are
descended from an earlier
word that meant
something like "shape" or
"form".[1] The use of like
in the place of -ly as an
adverb ending is seen in
Appalachian English, from
the hardening of the ch in
"lich" into a k, originating
in northern British speech.
In this way, -ly in English
is cognate with the
common German
adjective ending -lich, the
Dutch ending -lijk, the
Dano-Norwegian -lig and
Norwegian -leg. This
same process is followed
in Romance languages
with the ending -mente, -
ment, or -mense meaning
"of/like the mind".
In some cases, the suffix -
wise may be used to
derive adverbs from
nouns. Historically, -wise
competed with a related
form -ways and won out
against it. In a few words,
like sideways, -ways
survives; words like
clockwise show the
transition. Again, it is not a
foolproof indicator of a
word being an adverb.
Some adverbs are formed
from nouns or adjectives
by prepending the prefix
a- (such as abreast,
astray). There are a
number of other suffixes
in English that derive
adverbs from other word
classes, and there are also
many adverbs that are
not morphologically
indicated at all.
Comparative adverbs
include more, most, least,
and less (in phrases such
as more beautiful, most
easily etc.).
The usual form pertaining
to adjectives or adverbs is
called thepositive.
Formally, adverbs in
English are inflected in
terms ofcomparison, just
like adjectives. The
comparative and
superlative forms of some
(especially single-syllable)
adverbs that do not end in
-ly are generated by
adding -er and -est (She
ran faster; He jumps
highest). Others,
especially those ending -
ly, areperiphrastically
compared by the use of
more or most (She ran
more quickly) -- while
some accept both forms,
e.g. oftener and more
often are both correct.
Adverbs also take
comparisons with as ...
as, less, and least. Not all
adverbs are comparable;
for example in the
sentence He wore red
yesterday it does not
make sense to speak of
"more yesterday" or
"most yesterday".
Adverbs as a "catch-
all" category
Adverbs are considered a
part of speech in
traditional English
grammar and are still
included as a part of
speech in grammar
taught in schools and
used in dictionaries.
However, modern
grammarians recognize
that words traditionally
grouped together as
adverbs serve a number
of different functions.
Some would go so far as
to call adverbs a "catch-
all" category that includes
all words that do not
belong to one of the other
parts of speech.
A more logical approach
to dividing words into
classes relies on
recognizing which words
can be used in a certain
context. For example, a
noun is a word that can
be inserted in the
following template to
form a grammatical
sentence:
The _____ is red. (For
example, "The hat is
red".)
When this approach is
taken, it is seen that
adverbs fall into a number
of different categories. For
example, some adverbs
can be used to modify an
entire sentence, whereas
others cannot. Even when
a sentential adverb has
other functions, the
meaning is often not the
same. For example, in the
sentences She gave birth
naturally and Naturally,
she gave birth, the word
naturally has different
meanings. Naturally as a
sentential adverb means
something like "of course"
and as a verb-modifying
adverb means "in a
natural manner". This
"naturally" distinction
demonstrates that the
class of sentential adverbs
is aclosed class (there is
resistance to adding new
words to the class),
whereas the class of
adverbs that modify
verbs isn't.
Words like very and
particularly afford another
useful example. We can
say Perry is very fast, but
not Perry very won the
race. These words can
modify adjectives but not
verbs. On the other hand,
there are words like here
and there that cannot
modify adjectives. We
can say The sock looks
good there but not It is a
there beautiful sock. The
fact that many adverbs
can be used in more than
one of these functions can
confuse this issue, and it
may seem like splitting
hairs to say that a single
adverb is really two or
more words that serve
different functions.
However, this distinction
can be useful, especially
considering adverbs like
naturally that have
different meanings in their
different functions.
Huddleston distinguishes
between a word and a
lexicogrammatical-word.
[2]
The category of adverbs
into which a particular
adverb falls is to some
extent a matter of
convention; and such
conventions are open to
challenge as English
evolves. A particular
category-breaking use
may spread after its
appearance in a book,
song, or television show
and become so
widespread that it is
eventually acknowledged
as acceptable English. For
example, "well"
traditionally falls in a
category of adverb that
excludes its use as a
modifier of an adjective,
except where the adjective
is a past-participle
adjective like "baked".
However, imitating
characters in television
shows, a growing
number of English
speakers (playfully or
even without reflection)
use "well" to modify non-
past-participle adjectives,
as in "That is well bad!" It
is possible that this usage
will one day become
generally accepted.
Similarly, other category-
breaking uses of adverbs
may, over time, move
some English adverbs
from a restricted adverbial
class to a less-restricted
one.
Not is an interesting case.
Grammarians have a
difficult time categorizing
it, and it probably belongs
in its own class[3][4]
Other languages
Other languages may
form adverbs in different
ways, if they are used at
all: adverb of manners
and adverb of place.
In non-standard
Brazilian Portuguese,
the adverb menos
(less) sometimes
inflects for gender
before a feminine
noun. Menos água
thus becomes menas
água (less water). This
kind of inflection is
considered
ungrammatical and is
not recommended.[1]
In Dutch adverbs have
the basic form of their
corresponding
adjectives and are not
inflected (except for
comparison in which
case they are inflected
like adjectives, too).
In German the term
Adverb is differently
defined than in the
English language.
German adverbs form
a group of not
inflectable words
(except for
comparison in which
in rare cases some are
inflected like
adjectives, too). An
English adverb, which
is derived from an
adjective, is arranged
in the German
language under the
adjectives with
adverbial use in the
sentence. The others
are also called adverbs
in the German
language.
In Scandinavian
languages
, adverbs are typically
derived from
adjectives by adding
the suffix '-t', which
makes it identical to
the adjective's neuter
form. Scandinavian
adjectives, like English
ones, are inflected in
terms of comparison
by adding '-ere'/'-
are' (comparative) or '-
est'/'-ast' (superlative).
In inflected forms of
adjectives the '-t' is
absent.Periphrastic
comparison is also
possible.
In Romance languages
many adverbs are
formed from
adjectives (often the
feminine form) by
adding '-
mente' (Portuguese,
Spanish, Galician,
Italian) or '-
ment' (French, Catalan)
(from Latin mens,
mentis: mind,
intelligence). Other
adverbs are single
forms which are
invariable.
In the Romanian
language, the vast
majority of adverbs
are simply the
masculine singular
form of the
corresponding
adjective – one notable
exception being bine
("well") / bun ("good").
However, there are
some Romanian
adverbs that are built
from certain
masculine singular
nouns using the suffix
"-eşte", such as the
following ones: băieţ-
eşte (boyishly), tiner-
eşte (youthfully),
bărbăt-eşte (manly),
frăţ-eşte (brotherly),
etcaetara.
Interlingua also forms
adverbs by adding '-
mente' to the
adjective. If an
adjective ends in c, the
adverbial ending is '-
amente'. A few short,
invariable adverbs,
such as ben, "well",
and mal, "badly", are
available and widely
used.
In Esperanto, adverbs
are not formed from
adjectives but are
made by adding '-e'
directly to the word
root. Thus, from bon
are derived bone,
"well", and 'bona',
'good'. See also:
special Esperanto
adverbs
.
Modern Standard
Arabic
forms adverbs by
adding the indefinite
accusative ending '-an'
to the root. For
example, kathiir-,
"many", becomes
kathiiran "much".
However, Arabic often
avoids adverbs by
using acognate
accusative plus an
adjective.
Austronesian
languages
appear to form
comparative adverbs
by repeating the root
(as inWikiWiki),
similarly to the plural
noun.
Japanese forms
adverbs from verbal
adjectives by adding /
ku/ (く) to the stem
(e.g. haya- "rapid"
hayai "quick/early",
hayakatta "was quick",
hayaku "quickly") and
fromnominal
adjectives by placing /
ni/ (に) after the
adjective instead of the
copula /na/ (な) or /no/
(の) (e.g. rippa
"splendid", rippa ni
"splendidly"). These
derivations are quite
productive but there
are a few adjectives
from which adverbs
may not be derived.
In Gaelic, an adverbial
form is made by
preceding the
adjective with the
preposition go (Irish)
or gu (Scottish Gaelic),
meaning 'until'.
In Modern Greek, an
adverb is most
commonly made by
adding the endings <-
α> and/or <-ως> to
the root of an
adjective. Often, the
adverbs formed from
a common root using
each of these endings
have slightly different
meanings. So,
<τέλειος> (
meaning "perfect" and
"complete") yields
<τέλεια> (
"perfectly") and
<τελείως> (
"completely"). Not all
adjectives can be
transformed into
adverbs by using both
endings. <Γρήγορος>
(
becomes <γρήγορα>
(
but not normally
*<γρηγόρως>
(*
the <-ως> ending is
used to transform an
adjective whose tonal
accent is on the third
syllable from the end,
such as <επίσημος>
(
, the corresponding
adjective is accented
on the second syllable
from the end;
compare <επίσημα>
(
<επισήμως>
(
both mean "officially".
There are also other
endings with particular
and restricted use as
<-ί>, <-εί>, <-
ιστί>, etc. For
example,
<ατιμωρητί>
(
impunity") and
<ασυζητητί>
(
"indisputably");
<αυτολεξεί>
(
word") and
<αυτοστιγμεί>
(
time"); <αγγλιστί>
[
(language)"] and
<παπαγαλιστί>
(
rote"); etc.
In Latvian, an adverb
is formed from an
adjective, by changing
the masculine or
feminine adjective
endings -s and -a to -i.
"Labs", meaning
"good", becomes
"labi" for "well".
Latvian adverbs have
a particular use in
expressions meaning
"to speak" or "to
understand" a
language. Rather than
use the noun meaning
"Latvian/English/
Russian", the adverb
formed form these
words is used. "Es
runāju latviski/
angliski/krieviski"
means "I speak
Latvian/English/
Russian", or very
literally "I speak
Latvianly/Englishly/
Russianly". When a
noun is required, the
expression used
means literally
"language of the
Latvians/English/
Russians", "latviešu/
angļu/krievu valoda".
In Ukrainian/ Russian,
an adverb is formed
by removing the
adjectival suffices "-
ий" "-а" or "-е" from
an adjective, and
replacing them with
the adverbial "-о". For
example, "швидкий",
"гарна", and
"смачне" (fast, nice,
tasty) become
"швидко", "гарно",
and "смачно" (quickly,
nicely, tastefully). As
well, note that adverbs
are mostly placed
before the verbs they
modify: "Добрий син
гарно співає." (A
good son sings nicely/
well). Although, there
is no specific word
order in east slavic
languages.
In Korean, adverbs are
formed by replacing 다
of the dictionary form
of a verb with 게. So, 쉽
다 (easy) becomes 쉽게
(easily).
In Turkish, the same
word usually serves
as adjective and
adverb: iyi bir kız ("a
good girl"), iyi
anlamak ("to
understand well).
In Chinese, adverbs
end in the word "地",
the English equivalent
of "-ly". "地" on its own
literally means
"ground".
The Azerbaijan linguistic
school
does not consider an
adverb to be an
independentpart of
speech, as it is an
adverbialized form of
other parts of speech. I.e.,
recognition of its equity
with other parts of speech
violates the second and
fourth laws of logic
division. Adverbs are
derived from otherparts
of speech. Their functions
are performed by other
parts of speech when
they play the role of
"means of expression" for
anadverbial. That is, other
parts of speech, playing
the role of adverbial,
automatically transform
(convert) into an
adverb
Wednesday, June 29, 2011
ADVERB
9:21 AM
Ravi mishra
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